SATELLITES & UAVs

Official rules and modeling system for the Global Thunder MBX.

The following rules were created to allow MBX players to take control of their satellite and UAV reconnaissance, a critical element in real-life strategic and tactical planning that in wargames is traditionally left to the whim of the umpire. Please be forewarned that I am not an expert on satellite systems and that I make no claims as far as accuracy of the modelling. All I can attest to is that I made every effort in my few weeks of research to capture some of the basic principles and challenges of managing strategic and operational-level reconnaissance assets. My hope is that the players will discover a new level of hunch-playing, challenges and decision-making as they attempt to get a peek at their enemy or evade their enemy's prying eyes.

While these rules can be a bit tedious to read through, it should be mentioned that they are merely a set of guidelines for both players and umpires to go by and that they do not necessarily need to be followed to the letter in order to work. (I myself will probably just ballpark the results most of the time using these rules as a guide). The idea is merely to take into account the main, deciding factors involved in managing satellite surveillance assets so that the system will at least provide a rough approximation of the kinds of challenges that real life Air Force, CIA and NRO.

Contents

I. Satellites

Background

Classifications

Specs

Rules

 

II. UAVs

Background

Classifications

Rules

 

---

 

Satellites

Background

Much of today's real-life satellite activity has been pared down for purposes of game balance and playability. The satellites that will be modeled in Global Thunder are based on vehicles that were known to be operational by the year 2000. Most top-secret ("black") projects that have no documentation have been eliminated while many future systems that are intended to come on line in the next decade have been put "on hold." (Blame the computer virus, budget cuts or whatever excuse you prefer. :->) These include programs such as Discoverer II, ECS, Warfighter and Intruder. In some cases, capabilities and features of different satellites have been consolidated for purposes of simplicity.

The satellites gamed in this MBX fall into four categories:

 

Reconnaissance

Communications

Weather

Navigation

As this is a wargame, these rules are primarily concerned with reconnaissance satellites. The other types will be gamed, but abstractly. For example, countries that do not have access to a weather satellite will have far more inaccurate weather forecasts, and those forecasts they do get will not be updated as often. (This, of course, can have considerable military implications, especially in regions or seasons that feature sudden changes in weather.)

Since the strategic stage of this game (Stage I) will be played under peacetime conditions, these rules reflect a pronounced lack of speed and urgency when compared to wartime conditions. Once the MBX reaches Stage II the intel-collection process will go significantly faster without any penalty in quality of intel. During Stage III and in CPX play, certain satellites (but not all) will be able to provide "real-time" information, as determined by the umpire.

Types of Satellites

Generally, sateliltes can be grouped into two categories -- IMINT (image intelligence) and SIGINT (signals intelligence).

As their name implies, IMINT satellites form an image of the target area using various types of data -- optical, radar or infra-red -- either individually or in combination. They operate in low, near-polar orbits at an altitude of 500-3000 km. moving at fast speeds, usually making about 14 revolutions per day. (In this game, we will assume a speed of 12 revs. per day.) Their orbital planes remain fixed as the earth rotates beneath, allowing them to scan along a new swath with each orbit. The angle of rotation of the lens is such that it will have a small blind spot between each revolution that can only be covered by shifting to a new orbit. Thus, an orbit that has been optimized for one target will not always cover a second.

SIGINT satellites are designed to intercept communications and radar as well as other forms of electromagnetic transmissions. Depending on the satellite they can sometimes pinpoint the location of these emissions with fairly decent accuracy. These satellites are generally placed at much higher altitudes (~ 36,000 km.) in geosynchronous orbits, meaning that they remain stationary over a particular country or region. These satellites cover a much wider area than IMINT satellites, often a whole country. (There are a couple of exceptions to this, however, such as the USN's Ranger and Russia's Oko systems, which detect and pinpoint IR emissions.)

IMINT satellites come in several varieties:

Photo-optic -- High-definition photographic imagery. Image is recorded on film, retrieved and then processed and analyzed. This causes a delay in collecting intelligence of anywhere between 1 to 3 days from the time the data is requested, which makes photo-optic satellites more useful for strategic planning than for tactical combat situations, where a faster response time is needed. Lens optics on these satellites are generally very good, though not as good as the more modern electro-optical systems. Like the naked eye, they can not penetrate clouds or darkness and can be fooled by camouflage.

EO-IR -- Electro-optical/Infra-red. These satellites provide full-spectrum photographic imagery, including infra-red. Through digital enhancement, the imagery can be made to be sharper and more defined than with conventional photo-optic satellites. They still cannot penetrate clouds or darkness and are only slightly less likely to be fooled by camouflage. The IR sensors, meanwhile, which are able to spot heat sources at night, are useless in spotting vehicles or aircraft on the ground once their engines are cold. IR sensors can also be fooled by dummy heat sources and can be blocked to some degree by special IR-netting.

Radar Imaging -- Creates an image from hi-energy radar pulses reflected off the Earth's surface. These satellites produce several types of radar emissions, some of which are combined on the same vehicle. SAR-type satellites use "synthetic aperture" technology to resolve images to a very high degree of sharpness (though not as sharp as a photographic image), while using Doppler-radar technology can be used to spot movement of ships and aircraft. GMTI radar is particularly useful for detecting ground movement of vehicles. RORSAT type satellites are primarily used over oceanic regions to search for shipping. The main advantage to all of these satellites is that they can "see" through clouds and darkness. Resolution is not as good as photo-optic or E-O satellites, however, and analyzing its imagery requires a higher level of skill. (In peacetime, the chance of error will increase dramatically with workload as less experienced analysts are called upon to help out.) Images can also be subject to "noise" due to backscatter caused by certain unfavorable conditions such as rough seas or nearby large, metallic surfaces. Radar satellites are also susceptible to active jamming.

SIGINT satellites, meanwhile, are classified as follows:

EORSAT -- An oceanic surveillance satellite that tracks ships by detecting its radar, IR emmissions, and other electromagnetic data. These satellites work as a constellation and are able to pinpoint the location of the emissions through triangulation in combination with taking periodic bearings.

ELINT -- Electronics Intelligence. This is a general class of SIGINT satellite designed to listen to a wide range of electromagnetic energy including radar pulses (RADINT), all types of radio and TV bands as well as microwave and laser communication frequencies (COMINT). For game purposes, all of these capabilities will be assumed by one type of SIGINT satellite, allowing the team to choose the wavelength that they want to zero in on.

BMW -- Ballistic Missile Warning. This is a particular type of SIGINT satellite that is designed to detect and track ballistic missile telemetry (TELINT). These satellites operate at very high orbits and can usually detect a missile within a few seconds after launch with great reliability. (There is a 95% chance that this satellite will detect a launch if it is within its coverage area).

Since all types of data can be fooled or misinterpreted to some degree, a composite of two or three types of satellite data will greatly help increase the certainty of the results. The optimum mission is one that has been tasked with one photo-optic satellite (with IR sensors, if possible), one radar satellite, and one general SIGINT satellite.

Classifications

KH12 -- Electro-optical / IR

This satellite has excellent optics (made possible by internal digital enhancement) and can provide full-spectrum IMINT data in real time. It travels low and fast in a near-polar, sun-synchronous orbit, meaning it will pass over a given point at the same time each day. This makes it easier to detect changes taking place in the target area due to the ability to compare shadows between one photo and another. However, it also makes its arrival predictable to countries that possess good intelligence of US satellite paths, leaving open the possibility of deception or simply "laying low" for a few minutes while the satellite passes overhead. One way to avoid this predictability is to use its on-board fuel to change its orbit or to reduce its speed temporarily. The KH12 cannot be refueled and must therefore use much of its fuel to maintain its orbit.

KH13 -- Electro-optical / IR (Stealth)

This satellite is an improved, stealth version of the KH12 and is undetectable by radar or infra-red sensors. This is a safeguard against the the possible use of Russian or Chinese anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons.

8X -- Electro-optical / IR

This is one of the last of the "monstersats" that was launched around the turn of the millennium and features superior optics that go beyond even the KH13. Picture a Hubble telescope with a huge fuel tank and you've got the idea. These satellites are typically sent into a high "Molniya" orbit -- an elongated, elliptical path where the satellite's speed slows down dramatically at the apogee, or highest point of orbit. The tradeoff in image quality at this higher altitude is acceptable given its high quality optics, and in exchange it provides a longer dwell time, making it useful for real-time tactical battlefield observation. One drawback, however: the less frequent, elliptical orbit means that the enemy will have a longer window of time in which they can maneuver unobserved. The 8X carries significantly larger fuel tanks than the KH series and is designed to be refueled by the space shuttle. Each adjustment to its orbit will burn up a large portion of fuel, however, due to the satellite's enormous mass.

Lacrosse (Radar Imaging)

The Lacrosse satellite uses a sophisticated imaging process known as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) which is capable of resolving images to within 1 meter. This is not as high a resolution as the KH series but is certainly sufficient for detecting and targeting large objects like ships and aircraft, and unlike E-O satellites they are not limited by darkness or cloud cover. It also uses other radar emissions such a GMTI, to detect moving vehicles. A Lacrosse can detect underground field bunkers up to three meters underground and can detect submerged submarines at periscope depth. The NRO tries to keep two Lacrosse systems in orbit at all times, with one usually tasked for oceanic surveillance. Lacrosse satellites orbit the Earth 12-14 times a day and carry a modest amount of on-board propellant for orbit adjustments.

Ranger (EORSAT)

Developed by the US Navy, this system -- also known as the SB-WASS (Wide Area Surveillance Satellite) employs a primary infra-red scanning satellite and a triplet of smaller "drones" traveling along with it which use triangulation and the known time lag between the satellites to determine the exact location of a target. They then send weapons targeting data earthward to air and ground controllers using laser communications. These controllers in turn provide the targeting data needed by air and naval platforms for prosecution. The Ranger system is technically an ELINT satellite, but is unusual in that it travels fast in a low orbit like IMINT satellites.

Prowler (BMW)

The Prowler is a SIGINT satellite that's designed to pick up ballistic missile telemetry (TELINT) from the ground [GM: Well, it is in this game, at least. The info on it is very sketchy!]. Like most SIGINT satellites they are positioned in a geosynchronous orbit. These satellites are highly reliable, with a 95% chance of detecting a launch. Ballistic missile launches will usually be detected within a few seconds of lift-off.

Mercury (ELINT, COMINT)

A quasi-stationary SIGINT satellite designed to pick up a full spectrum of electromagnetic energy for use in broadband monitoring. Unlike most other SIGINT satellites which operate in geosynchronous orbits, it is located at an even higher orbit and moves in a complex, elliptical pattern. This not only gives it wider coverage but also allows it to take bearings on a given transmitter and thus pinpoint its location with great accuracy.

Yantar (Photo-Optical) (Russian)

This is a film-return IMINT satellite that is the prototype for many copies worldwide. Each capsule takes 2 to 4 days to recover, process and analyze during Stage I, or 12-36 hours during wartime (Stage II). It is designed for missions of short duration (usually no more than two months) over a specific target. It is not maneuverable, but its light mass, simple design and relatively low cost permits these satellites to be launched more frequently than US satellites.

Orlets (Photo-Optical) (Russian)

The satellite is similar to the Yantar type but carries a modest amount of on-board propellant for maneuvering and uses a film-return capsule mechanism with 22 separate capsules. These two features extend its useable mission duration to anywhere between six months and a year.

Arkon (Electro-Optical/IR) (Russian)

For game purposes, this will be modeled the same as the KH12.

Oblik (Radar) (Russian)

A modern, SAR satellite with good resolution that can be used over all types of terrain. Will be gamed exactly like the Lacrosse.

US-A (Radar) (Russian)

An older, RORSAT type ocean surveillance satellite that uses active radar to spot targets. Its resolution is poor but it covers a wider area than most other IMINT satellites. It is actually nuclear powered, which provides powerful radar pulses as well as its propulsion allowing it to remain aloft indefinitely. There is a higher chance of technical problems with these satellites, however, which could create an embarrassing incident (such as the spectacular one that occurred over Canada in 1978).

Oko (aka US-K) (ELINT) (Russian)

A Russian satellite that uses an infra-red telescope to collect data. It operates in highly elliptical orbits with its apogee generally over locations in the US, thus extending its "dwell time." Its resolution is poor but can provide useful data in combination with other satellites.

TSELINA I (EORSAT) (Russian)

A specialized type of SIGINT satellite used primarily for tracking NATO shipping. Similar to the US Navy's Ranger system, it operates in a constellation of several other satellites that detect and classify ELINT data and then compares readings from different locations over time to determine the position of the source to within 2 kms. It then transmits weapons targeting data which is relayed by communications satellites either to ground stations or directly to Russian ships carrying a Punch Bowl radar for prosecution. A constellation of 8 of these satellites is necessary for complete global coverage and to attain the best accuracy.

TSELINA II (ELINT) (Russian)

General, all-round ELINT satellite. Same as Mercury.

FSW (Fanhui Shi Weixing) (China)

Same as Yantar.

DFH-10 (Dong Fang Hong) (RORSAT) (China)

Same as the Russian US-A RORSAT except that it is not nuclear powered.

Shenzou-2 (Photo-Optical) (China)

A commercial-quality photo-optical satellite. This satellite has no maneuvering ability which limits its lifespan from two to six months, depending on its initial orbit. It uses a film capsule retrieval method, which means a delay of 2 to 4 days to retrieve, process and analyze the film.

Badr-B (Photo-Optical) -- (Pakistan)

Same as the Shenzou-2

Rohini-II (Photo-Optical) (India)

Same as Shenzou-2

Ofeq (Photo-Optical) (Israel)

Same as Shenzou -2

Satellite Specifications

SATELLITE CAPABILITIES
NAME	Type	Revs/ Day	Orbit	Manvrbl?	Best Resolution	Swath*	Dwell time	Comments
KH-12	EO-IR	12	Low	Yes	.15	800 mi	No	Very good optics
KH-13	EO-IR	12	Low	Yes	.10	800 mi	No	Stealth version of the KH12. Excellent optics.
Lacrosse	Radar	12	Low	Yes	.5	1000 mi	No	Combination SAR, Doppler and GMTI radars
8X	EO-IR	6	Med	Yes	.05	1000 mi	2 hrs	Best optics of any satellite. Longest dwell time.
Ranger	ELINT	12	Low	No	10	1500 mi		Oceanic surveillance and IR targeting.
Mercury	ELINT	Stationary	Geosyn	Yes	100 m.	3000 mi		All-round SIGINT satellite.
Prowler	TELINT	Stationary	Geosyn	Yes	10 m.	1500 mi		Strategic ballistic missile warning satellite.
Yantar	Photo-optic	12	Low	No	.30	500 mi	No	Multiple film capsule-retrieval.
Arkon	EO-IR	12	Low	Yes	.15	800 mi	No	Same as US KH12
Oblik	Radar	12	Low	Yes	1.00	1000 mi	No	Same as US Lacrosse
Oko	IR	6	High	Yes	25 m	2000 mi	1 hr	Uses highly elliptical orbit for longer dwell time.
US-A	RORSAT	6	High	Yes	25 m	2000 mi	1 hr	Oceanic radar and targeting satellite.Elliptical orbit.
Tselina I	EORSAT	6	High	No	2 km	3000 mi	2 hrs.	Wide-area oceanic ELINT surveillance
Tselina II	ELINT	Stationary	Geosyn	Yes	100 m	5000 mi		Same as US Mercury
Shenzou-2	Photo-optic	12	Low	No	.50	500 mi		Chinese film-retrieval satellite

* All Swath figures for IMINT satellites are for elevation E5. The width of the satellite's swath is reduced by 100 miles for each level below E5. "Swath" is the equivalent of "diameter" for geosynchronous satellites.

Satellite Rules

 

 

Because of the particular premise of Global Thunder, these rules have been written from the perspective of a peacetime situation (Stage I) before combat has broken out. In wartime, it can be assumed that all satellite intel will be reported significantly faster without any cost to the quality of the information. Faster reporting is also possible in peacetime if the country's defenses are in "war mode" in a particular region or at "DEFON 2" or higher." See the memo on Upgrading US Defense Posture in the documents section of your planning cell for details.

Quality of Satellite Intel

The purpose of these rules is to determine the degree of richness and accuracy of the satellite intel as reported by the umpire. This of course is a subjective decision, but in general "richness and accuracy" will be governed by the following four parameters:

• Area of coverage -- This is determined by the players. The larger the area covered the longer the processing will take, so players should try not to choose a larger target area than necessary.
• Amount of data reported -- This is largely determined by the objective -- what it is the players are looking for, and with what degree of specificity (e.g.,"ships," "large ships," or "large, container ships?"). The amount of data is also affected by other factors such as the type and quality of the satellite, the angle of the viewfinder, terrain masking, lighting conditions, camouflage, weather, and so on, as well as the amount of time spent processing the data.
• Resolution -- This determines how detailed the report will be, and will greatly affect the ability to identify enemy units. Resolution is diminished by the satellite's altitude, obliqueness of the angle of the lens, lack of sunlight and other factors.
• Accuracy -- This is the degree of certainty that the intel is correct. Accuracy increases with processing time and with the number of images available.

Keep the above parameters in mind when requesting a satellite reconnaissance mission, and consider which ones are the most important -- and which ones are not as important -- for the mission you've described.

Requesting Satellite Intel

To request satellite intelligence, teams need only state the target (geographic area) and the objective (what you are looking for). The target can be defined by any description you choose -- type of terrain, the name of a town, map grid coordinates, whatever -- as long as you make it clear to the umpire. This, in turn, will define the scope of the sensing device (Wide, Zoom or Spot) at a given altitude. The objective can be defined by the type of intel you expect to receive, such as "warships," "troop movements" or "air defense radars." You can list as many objectives as you wish for each target area, though the greater the number of objectives the more it increases the analysis time. The objective will determine which type of satellite or satellites are most appropriate for the mission.

Time Cost

IMINT:

 

Analysis of spot imaging is (D6 x 6 hours )

Analysis of zoomed imaging is (D6 x 8 hours)

Analysis of wide area imaging is (D6 x 12 hours)

(Add 1 day for film-retrieval systems).

SIGINT:

One band: 1 day + (D6 x 8 hours)

Two bands: 1 day + (D6 x 8 hours x 2 )

Three bands: 1 day + (D6 x 8 hours x 3 )

Multiple Satellites:

If more than one satellite is tasked to a mission, use the following formula:

T1 + T2 + T3 - (n x 6 hours)

Where T1, T2 and T3 are the time costs of each mission (figured separately) and n is the total number of satellites tasked. So if you have 4 satellites, add up the four different time costs using the IMINT and SIGINT formulas, above, then subtract 24 hours from the total. (The subtraction represents the efficiency gained in analyzing an image formed by different sensors but taken of the exact same target.)

Urgent Situations

If, during peacetime (Stage I), you are faced with a pressing need to acquire intel more quickly than the time that is estimated by your intelligence agency, you have the following options:

1) Speed up the process by classifying the assignment as "URGENT." This will bring significantly faster results (generally 1-3 days faster, depending on die roll) but with the following penalties and restrictions:

• All other missions that have been assigned to your intelligence agency will be put on hold until the Urgent mission is completed. This includes non-satellite-related missions.
• All satellite missions for the week following the urgent mission will be handled less efficiently, taking more time and with less accuracy. (In peacetime, this could be particularly hurtful to radar imaging missions which rely on a well-rested team of experts. In wartime a backup team is assumed to have been trained.)
• Repeated orders for "urgent" missions over the course of several months (game time) will begin to be seen as "jumpy," or "panicky" behavior by the Chiefs of Staff -- unless, of course, the satellites pick up signs of danger showing that you really did have a good reason to be concerned. These considerations will be factored into your final umpire's evaluation of team performance.

2) You can also upgrade your country's defense posture, thereby making "Urgent" missions a 'normal' course of action, with no degradation in intel quality. There are two ways of upgrading your defense posture. One way is by declaring a "War Zone" around a particular country, which will permit Urgent missions to be assigned to that country. The other is to go to DEFCON 2 or higher, which essentially makes the whole world a war zone and permits Urgent missions over any country. (See the specially added section to the Global Thunder game rules about upgrading your country's defense posture). Upgrading your country's defense posture comes with serious penalties, however, if it turns out that the threat could have been handled by available assets under normal peacetime conditions. For more information, see the DoD memo on Upgrading the US Defense Posture in the Documents section of your planning area.

Availability of Satellites

Checking the flightpath

To see if an IMINT or EORSAT satellite is available for a mission, first check to see which flightpath it is following -- Orbit 1 or Orbit 2 -- as indicated by the Satellite Tracking Map. Then check the width of the satellite's swath in Table 1 to see if the requested target lies within the satellite's footprint. If the target lies outside the satellite's swath the satellite cannot see the target unless it is moved to a different orbit. (See next section).

NOTE: The US "8X" and Russian "US-A" and"US-K" EORSAT satellites make half the number of revolutions as the IMINT satellites, roughly following the path of every other line of the same color on the Satellite Tracking Maps. Therefore, count off every other line, not every line, when determining its flightpath.

Checking the alititude

Assuming the satellite is on the correct flightpath, now check the to see if it is at an elevation high enough for its field of view to encompass the target (Table 2). If not, the satellite will have to be taken to a higher elevation in order to "see" the target are. If the satellite cannot go any higher it means it must be on the wrong flightpath and the flightpath will have to be changed.

If a satellite must be repositioned, the umpire will notify the team and hold off from resolving the mission until the team has authorized the maneuver.

Repositioning Satellites

A satellite with maneuvreing capability can alter its flight path two ways -- either by changing its elevation, or by changing its orbital plane. A change of orbit is excecuted simply by having the player specify a new target and the time of day it needs to overfly it. (If no time is specified, the umpire can choose the time). A change of elevation is executed simply by having the player specify the new elevation.

Most satellites can also be ordered to slow down its velocity in order to provide 1 hour of added "dwell time" over the target area (useful for real-time imagery during tactical combat).

Any change of a satellite's orbit, alititude or velocity will have the side-benefit of changing its arrival time over the target, making it less predictable to the enemy (at least for a while).

Due to the strategic importance of maintaining a fleet of satellites with some degree of mobility, players should carefully consider all options before authorizing a satellite maneuver.

Fuel cost

Cost of fuel for all satellites is 10% per maneuver. (5% to initiate, another 5% to stabilize). This cost is the same regardless of how the orbit was modified or the number of elevation levels the satellite passed through to get to the new elevation level.

Weather

The table below (Table 3) shows how much of the target will be obscured by various weather conditions. To determine the effect, subtract the value shown in the table from 100% to arrive at a the Percentage of Sightings (pS) detected. A pS of 90% means that the umpire will omit 10% of the sightings that would otherwise be visible if it weren't for bad weather. When omitting sightings, the umpire starts from the smallest objects and works up.

TABLE 3. Weather Effect.

Use this table as a guide to limiting the percentage of total possible sightings (pS) due to adverse weather.

 

Multiple-satellite bonus

If more than one type of satellite has been tasked to the mission, both the % Sightings (pS) and Accuracy increase. To find out how much, use a D6 and the table below. Since we are only concerned with pS at the moment, calculate the increase to the pS. (Increase in Accuracy is covered in a later step).

TABLE 4. Multiple Satellite Effect on pS and Accuracy.

NOTE: Figures apply to both pS and Accuracy. Neither pS or Accuracy can be more than 100%.

 

Other considerations

There are a number of factors that affect satellite observation, some obvious, some not. The list below provides a rough guideline so that both players and umpires know what these factors are. What effect they will have on intelligence is up to the discretion of the umpire.

1) Terrain masking. Troops and vehicles can easily be hidden from view by various forms of terrain. Foliage, crevasses, reverse slopes of mountains, irregular rock formations and general roughness of the terrain are all common factors. Urban terrain is another good example of terrain that is hard to see troops or assets. Terrain masking increases with the obliqueness of angle to the target.

2) Smoke. This can be gamed as either Partly Cloudy or Mostly Cloudy skies, depending on how smoky the umpire believes the battlefield would be. See Table 4 to factor in results of smoke.

3) Time of day. If the sighting is being made at dawn or dusk, or the terrain is such that it would be primarily cast in shadows (such as a city park situated to the north of a lot of skyscrapers, for example) somewhat fewer sightings would be made, and IR is less effective since the heat from the ground has not yet dissipated. Hence, early morning and dusk are usually not good times for observation for EO-IR satellites since they fail to optimize both sets of sensors.

4) Backscatter. This affects radar satellites, and is caused by high ocean waves, dense city skylines, high, flat peaks whose face is facing the radar emissions, electrical power grids and a lot of metal (such as at a refinery). Backscatter can make objects indistinguishable if they are within 1 km. of such a disturbance.

5) Optical distortion. At the outer tenth of the satellite's swath objects become harder to distinguish due to the greater distance and abberation that begins to occur at edge of the lens. Rule of thumb: reduce the number of sightings seen in this area if they are small, or if they are large, reduce the amont of detail and accuracy in the report.

6) Vertical angle of view. Objects directly below are clear and highly resolved but can be more difficult to identify when seen directly from this angle.

7) Lack of analysis time. Normally, this will not be a factor unless the team specifically requests a "rush" on the intel retrieval.

Resolution

The resolution of the image is determined by the resolution of the satellite's sensor and the altitude of the satellite. To calculate this, see table below:

Adjustments to Resolution

Resolution is measured in nine distinct intervals, or "levels," as follows (listed from best to worst):

.05 meters

.10 meters

.3 meters

.5 meters

1 meter

2 meters

3 meters

5 meters

10 meters

Start with the level of resolution derived from the previous step. Then degrade the resolution by a certain number of "steps," according to whether the following factors exist:

1) Haze. If the weather is hazy, roll a D6. If the roll is 3-6, Reduce resolution by one level. If the roll is a 1 or 2 and the target is near an urban area (smog), reduce resolution by two levels .

2) Backscatter (see Step 8, part 4, above). If any of these conditions exist, reduce resolution of radar satellite by one level within 1 km. of each of these conditions.

3) Oblique angle of view. Resolution of IMINT satellites degrades due to distortion of the image at the edge of its viewfinder. If the target is within the outer fifth of the satellite's swath, reduce resolution by one level.

4) Lack of analysis time. Normally, this will not be a factor unless the team specifically requests a "rush" on the intel retrieval. If this is the case, roll a D6 and reduce resolution by 1 level if the roll is 1-3, two levels if the roll is 4-6.

What can be reported

After completing the previous step you should now have an "adjusted" level of resolution. This will govern how much detail you can include in your report, as shown by the following table. (See description of terms, below).

* Fixed-wing aircraft on ground, unobstructed
** Rotary wing aircraft (helo) in hover at NOE, Low or landed

 

As resolution degrades (becomes larger in value) the amount of detail that is useful for identifying sightings diminishes. For a detailed description of what these terms mean, see the table below.

Accuracy

Accuracy is measured two ways - Percentage, and Deviation. Percentage refers to how many sightings out of 100 were reported correctly. Deviation refers to how wildly off the mark the incorrect report was, and is measured on a scale of 1-10.

Percentage:

All satellite missions start out with an accuracy rating of 100% and run a chance of error, as follows:

1) Roll a D6. If the roll is 2-6 the report is 100% accurate. If the roll is a "1," there is a chance of an error. Go on to the next step.

2) If the next roll is 4-6, the report is 100% accurate. If the roll is 1-3, there will be one error out of every 20 items reported (95%). Go on to the next step to determine deviation.

Deviation:

Deviation -- the degree to which the reported entry is wrong is measured on a scale of 1- 10, with 1 being only a slight error and 10 being completely off the mark (eg, a friendly tank column is reported as an enemy tank column, or a small group of enemy cargo ships is reported as an enemy carrier battle group).

To determine deviation, use a D10 if 1 type of satellite was used, a D6 if 2 types were used, and a D4 for 3 types. Thus, using three different types of satellite data (photo, radar and SIGINT) ensures that the deviations will not go beyond a level of 4 on a scale of 10.

"Urgency" Effect

Heavy workloads and stress tend to generate inaccuracies. Thus, if there has been an "urgent" mission conducted within the last game week, run the error sequence, above, once again. (Reflects fatigue factor due to the stretching thin of trained personnel and other resources during peacetime conditions.)

Update maps and status reports

After reporting the findings, the umpire will update the game clock according to the time spent on the mission (Step 11) as well as any new flight paths, elevation levels and remaining fuel levels on the satellite tracking map.

This ends the process of mission resolution for satellites.

System failures

Each game week, there is a 3% chance that a technical problem will occur with a satellite. This calculation should be done before the mission is attempted in case the mission has to be scrubbed. To determine if there is a system failure each week, roll a D100 (1-97 means "all clear"). If the roll produces a failure (98-100), consult the System Failure Die Roll Table below to see how serious the problem is.

This die roll is independent of any missions being resolved, and must be conducted on a regular basis whether the satellites are being used or not.

UAVs

Background

All branches of the US military are becoming increasingly dependent on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), (as witnessed by the frequent use of the Predator during the Kosovo operation) and for that reason they will be modeled in this game. As a game element however, UAVs -- as well as satellites, U2s, Guardrails and JSTARS -- can pose a problem. The very concept of gaining intelligence through remote sensing and push-button surveillance where no human lives are at stake would seem to be an anathema to the spirit of danger and risk which is the very heart and soul of wargaming. Calmly observing your enemy from the safety of a command console might be a reasonable approach to warfare in real life, but robs the MBX player of that cold, clammy fear of putting real troops in an unknown situation with the chance of facing gruesome consequences. In the interest of inducing more fear and dread into the game (which I know at heart you all really want <g>) I am keeping the number of these wonder-toys at a bare minimum at the strategic level, which should translate to a scarcity of them at the operational and tactical levels as well.

In this game, only BLUFOR will have strategic-level UAVs -- that is, UAVs with the capabilities of the Predator or the Global Hawk. A few countries will have tactical UAVs as seen in TacOps.

UAV Classifications

Outrider

Tactical UAV. The outrider was in development in the year 2000 but since all previous programs were canceled we will use this as the UAV for tactical Army combat. It employs both electro-optical and infra-red so it can see through smoke during battle. It will be gamed using a TacOps UAV any time there is tactical combat. Being so new there are only a few squadrons of Outrider UAVs and are therefore still considered a Corps asset at this time. Operators will need three to five days to prepare the communication link-ups before being able to deploy this unit.

Pioneer

Tactical UAV. The Pioneer is the Navy's version of the familiar Army UAV used in TacOps. They are equipped with either electro-optical or IR sensors, depending on the time of day the mission takes place. The Pioneer will be gamed using a TacOps UAV any time there is tactical combat involving US Marine operations supported by an amphibious ready group or a carrier group, but the umpire will only furnish intel based on the sensor chosen by the team at the start of the mission (E-O or IR). There are five of these vehicles attached to most MEUs, but no more than one UAV may be deployed per mission at any one time. Operators are familiar with controlling these units from on-board the assault carrier and need no time to prepare a communications link.

Each MEF has at least one detachment of Pioneer UAVs.

Predator

Operational-level UAV. A typical Predator system configuration would include four aircraft, one ground control system and one Trojan Spirit II data distribution terminal. The Predator air vehicle is 27 ft.. in length and has a 49 ft. wingspan. The system operates at an altitude of 25,000 ft. and at a range of 400 nautical miles. The endurance of the air vehicle is more than 40 hours and the cruise speed is over 70 knots. The air vehicle is equipped with UHF and VHF radio relay links, a C-band line-of-sight data link which has a range of 150 nautical miles and UHF and Ku-band satellite data links.

The Predator carries electro-optical and infrared cameras and a synthetic aperture radar with a resolution of 1 foot. The 2 color DLTV television is equipped with a variable zoom and 955 mm Spotter. The high resolution FLIR has 6 fields of view, 19 to 560 mm. Other payload options, which can be selected to meet mission requirements, include a laser designator and rangefinder, electronic support and countermeasures and a moving target indicator (MTI). Just before the turn of the millennium, a Predator successfully fired a Hellfire in a test flight, making it the first UAV to fire a weapon.

There is a detachment of Predator UAVs deployed to each of the largest two US theater commands, CINLANT and CINCPAC. These detachments can be transferred to other theater commands as necessary.

Global Hawk

Strategic UAV. The Global Hawk is a long-range, high altitude UAV system that is capable of automated flight to an altitude of 60,000 feet and is capable of viewing areas as large as Illinois. It uses both electro-optical and SAR radar and can travel as far as 3000 miles to a target area, hover in place for 24 hours, and return home (assuming normal wind conditions). This system was well on its way to being a full-production UAV just before being sidelined at the last minute by the computer virus. This has left only a handful of test models and only a few technicians who can operate the system. This team will need anywhere from 5 to 10 days to familiarize themselves with the selected target area.

The US Air Force currently has 3 Global Hawk vehicles, with Vehicles 1 and 3 deployed at Edwards Air Force Base,California, and Vehicle 4 based at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. (Vehicle 2 crashed in test flights).

UAV Rules

Only the Predator and the Global Hawk will be gamed at the strategic and operational levels. Outrider and Predator will be gamed using the TacOps UAV in tactical combat situations. In these situations the umpire can set up forces on a Tacops map that best represents the features of the given target area. Where there is no map suitable to the situation the umpire will need to rely on his familiarity with using UAVs in TacOps to decide what information it will report.

The Predator and Global Hawk will be gamed exactly the way Satellites are, using the table below. The other two UAVs are listed as reminders that they carry different payloads, which should be kept in mind during tactical missions.

Blue type = Payload Option 1

Red type = Payload Option 2

 

% Sightings

Number of orbits does not come into play for UAVs, but number of hours over the target does. The formula for % Sightings is as follows:

Where t is the amount of time over the target, in hours, and the maximum number of hours needed to see 100% of the sightings is 3 hours.

The % Sightings is then diminished by weather conditions according to the following table:

Check through the remaining factors affecting % Sightings in the Satellite rules, above, to see if any of those conditions apply, then modify the % Sightings accordingly.

NOTE: Due to the shorter time spans of all but the Global Hawk UAV, the Daylight Factor does not need to be computed. (Global Hawk has SAR radar so darkness is not an issue.)

Resolution

Check through the factors affecting Resolution in the Satellite rules, above, to see if any of those conditions apply. Modify the level of resolution accordingly.

Accuracy

Accuracy will be affected by weather and time of day. Subtract the following from 100%:

If weather is Hazy or Partly Cloudy, Subtract 5%. If mostly cloudy, subtract 10%.

If it is it is dawn or dusk, subtract 10%.

Deviation for each error is 1-6 on a scale of 10 during peacetime, as decided by a D6.

During tactical combat, deviation is 1-10, as decided by a D10.

END OF RULES